Milton Friedman’s seminal article, “Methodology of Positive Economics”, is one of the most important and contentious works ever been discussed within the realm of economic methodology. In this article, on the basis of an instrumentalist approach to the nature of theorizing, Friedman declares the tenets of positive economics, and in this vein, he professes his disputable doctrine about “unrealistic assumptions” as the core of his view. In this article, we try to discuss over some LOGICal and theoretical defects in Friedman’s article which essentially weakens his supportive arguments about his views (internal critique); furthermore, in the light of Lakatos’ epistemoLOGICal framework, we take into consideration the epistemoLOGICal status of Friedman’s predectivist instrumentalism (external critique) and we reach this conclusion that his approach is degenerating in Lakatosian term.

Usually TWO-dimensional substitution is used for the production of integrated circuits. Due to heavy use of communications, TWO-dimensional substitution has high losses as well as, density of elements is low in it. To resolve this problem, three-dimensional substitution method was proposed. Rather than the TWO-dimensional arrangement of elements in a row, elements are layout in three dimensions in this substitution. In this paper, three-dimensional substitution algorithms using order used in TWO-dimensional substitution, three-dimensional substitution analysis by mPL and three-dimensional substitution simultaneous with TWO-dimensional substitution by mPL have been studied in terms of structure and function, and a butterfly processing element (PE) and an Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) block and a wireless MIMO decoder to assess them have been implemented with the mentioned methods. . Applying these methods shows that the use of face to face integration by microbuses in communications of substitution algorithm, on average, improves the maximum clock and block speed of AES encryption to 15. 3% and the maximum clock and block speed of PE module to 22. 6% as well as the maximum clock and speed of MIMO modules to 17. 1%, while the use of these methods has led to the average reduction in power consumption of 2. 6% for the AES module and the average reduction in power of 12. 9% for the PE module and the average reduction in power consumption of 5. 1% for MIMO module.

The second order LOGIC is a part of classical LOGIC whose vocabulary is made by adding predicate Variable to the vocabulary of the first order LOGIC (without identity). Hence, the formation rules, the axioms and the rules of inference in this LOGIC are made according to the first order LOGIC (without identity).The axioms of this LOGIC consists of the axiom schema of the first order LOGIC (without identity), some axioms similar to the axioms of first order LOGIC, and axiom schema of Relation comprehension and function comprehension. In this LOGIC, the axiom of identity can be established by the Leibnitian definition of identity.TWO semantics are presented for the second order LOGIC: Standard semantics whose models resemble the ordinary models of the first order LOGIC, and Henkin semantics which is distinct From standard semantics by its ability of limiting sets.Any valid formula in Henkin model is valid in standard model, not vice versa. And each Satisfiable formula in standard semantics is also satisfiable in Henkin semantics, not vice versa.The axiom of relation comprehension is not valid in Henkin semantics. The soundness and Consistency metatheorems of the second order LOGIC can be proved in both Henkin semantics and Standard semantics. We can prove the incompleteness and the incompactness metatheorems of the second order LOGIC by standard semantics. But in Henkin semantics, the completeness and compactness metatheorems of the second order LOGIC can be proved.In this article, the main aim is studying-the significance of semantic changing and its Consequences in syntax (axioms, ways of inferences,…) and in metatheorem by concentrating on second order LOGIC. We have shown that the change in semantics will result in changes in the abovementioned parts.

Fast and sensitive response electrochemical sensor based on CoFe2O4 nanoparticle and 1-buthyl-3-methyl imidazolium bromide room temperature ionic liquids carbon paste electrode (CoFe2O4/NP/ILs/CPE) is fabricated for the determination of Xanthine (Xt) in the presences of Caffeine in fish and fruit samples. In the first step, CoFe2O4/NP was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) and results showed synthesized nanoparticle with diameter between 26. 92-29. 22 nm. The electro-oxidation of Xt and Caffeine occurred at a potential about 0. 7 V and 1. 1 V, which was much better in comparison with bare carbon paste electrode in phosphate buffer (pH=6. 0) at the surface of the (CoFe2O4/NP/ILs/CPE). Other electrochemical techniques were also investigated including cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and chronoamperometry at CoFe2O4/NP/ILs/CPE. At optimized conditions for Xt and Caffeine analysis, DPV peak currents showed a wide linear dynamic ranging from 8. 0 nM to 500 μ M and detection limit for Xt was 3. 0 nM and of course we obtained good dynamic range between 0. 1 to 300 μ M and good limit of detection 0. 05 μ M for caffeine. As a result, the proposed electrode could determine Xt in the presences of Caffeine in real samples with good selectivity and high sensitivity.

In this paper, a complete study has been done in the field of optical crystal LOGIC gates. Also, several gates have been designed and simulated in the ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths (wavelength range of 1500 nm). In all cases, the boundary conditions of the complete absorber are considered. First, the method of constructing a waveguide is presented, which is used to construct a divider. Then, with the help of this waveguide, an amplifier loop is designed. In this simulation, an attempt has been made to reduce the gate operator time. For this purpose, we have used dividers as a combination of wave generators in the center of the gate. These gates respond in a very short time, about 0. 3 femtoseconds, to incoming light. In the telecommunication area, silicon has been used for building the gates. Also, in the center of the gate, the Mach Zander interferometer is used instead of the power combiner, which increases the response time,In this range, the dispersion of silicon material is considered. Another advantage of these gates is the input and output on one side, which can be used in integrated circuits. Powerful RSOFT software has been used to simulate the gate and to observe and analyze the results. Also, the band gap calculations of the PWE flat wave expansion method have been performed with the same software, and in the gate output wavelength calculations, the time domain finite difference method of FDTD has been used.

Wireless sensor neTWOrks are a new generation of neTWOrks that from sensors uses to get information about itself environment and communication this sensors is as wireless. One of the issues that is very important in wireless sensor neTWOrks is Discussion reducing energy consumption and increasing neTWOrk lifetime. Topology control is one of the methods to reduce energy consumption and increase the lifetime of the neTWOrk. Since different methods of topology control, to reduce energy consumption and enhance the neTWOrk lifetime is proposed that including them is the clustering and one of the most famous clustering methods is LEACH. In this paper, we try to present a new clustering method that is superior compared to leach and other improved methods after the LEACH. we use in our clustering method from TWO-level fuzzy LOGIC that be causing reduce energy consumption and increase the neTWOrk lifetime compared to other methods and to prove the superiority of our method compared with other methods, we present a comparison using MATLAB software.

The four-FOLD gnostic journeys provide a well-known model for explaining the stages of tawhidi (monotheistic) wayfaring. However, a study of the LOGIC of such journeys and an investigation of the reasons for dividing mystic wayfaring into these four-FOLD stages reveals that this model enjoys a desirable capacity for clarifying the stages of thinking in theoretical wayfaring. In this paper, in order to provide an extensive explanation of the model of four-FOLD journeys for thought, the writers initially explore their LOGIC through referring to the background of the four-FOLD gnostic journeys. After clarifying the essence of these journeys, they demonstrate that the stages of desirable thinking in the process of solving any scientific problem could consist of the same stages as the four gnostic journeys. Following a detailed explanation of this similarity, the four journeys of thought in Sadrian philosophy and in relation to the problem of anthropology are briefly explored. Finally, the writers examine some of the general principles of the model of the four-FOLD journeys in the realm of thinking and elaborate on the educational advantages of using this particular model.

TWO - FOLD LOGICians of the 7th century, with reference to the difference in the syntax of generic and indefinite propositions, set out to treat it as one kind of predicative proposition and to change the t:.iyartite division into the quadripartite one. They started criticising the hvo outlooks of generic indefinite and individual propositions. There is Cl difference between generic propositions and indefinite propositions. Since the former is not reducible to the contirmation of the subject and predicate, its predicate is not included in its subject, and it,; real subject is not identical with the mentioned subject. There is no syntactical difference between the generic and individual propositions on the above - mintioned issues. Their differences pertain to the predicate. With regard to generic propositions, as distinguished from individual ones, the LOGICians of the 7th century realized the LOGICal importance of second order concepts. The present article is an attempt to study the contribution of TWO - FOLD LOGICians of the 7th century to the development of LOGIC.

An accurate potential function is essential for protein FOLDing problem and structure prediction. TWO different types of potential energy functions are currently in use. The first type is based on the law of physics and second type is referred to as statistical potentials or knowledge based potentials. In the latter type, the energy function is extracted from statistical analysis of experimental data of known protein structures. By increasing the amount of three dimensional protein structures, this approach is growing rapidly. There are various forms of knowledge based potentials depending on how statistics are calculated and how proteins are modeled. In this review, we explain how the knowledge based potentials are extracted by using known protein structures and briefly compare many of the potentials in theory.